Methods, systems, and computer readable media for modeling interactive diffuse reflections and higher-order diffraction in virtual environment scenes

ABSTRACT

Methods, systems, and computer readable media for simulating sound propagation are disclosed. According to one method, the method includes decomposing a virtual environment scene including at least one object into a plurality of surface regions, wherein each of the surface regions includes a plurality of surface patches. The method further includes organizing sound rays generated by a sound source in the virtual environment scene into a plurality of path tracing groups, wherein each of the path tracing groups comprises a group of the rays that traverses a sequence of surface patches. The method also includes determining, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound intensity by combining a sound intensity computed for a current time with one or more previously computed sound intensities respectively associated with previous times and generating a simulated output sound at a listener position using the determined sound intensities.

PRIORITY CLAIM

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/018,329, filed Jun. 27, 2014; the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. W911 NF-10-1-0506, W911NF-12-1-0430, and W911 NF-13-C-0037 awarded by the Army Research Office. The government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The subject matter described herein relates to sound propagation. More specifically, the subject matter relates to methods, systems, and computer readable media for modeling interactive diffuse reflections and higher-order diffraction in virtual environment scenes.

BACKGROUND

Virtual environment technologies are widely used in different applications, including engineering design, training, architecture, and entertainment. In order to improve realism and immersion, it is important to augment visual perceptions with matching sound stimuli and auralize the sound fields. The resulting auditory information can significantly help the user evaluate the environment in terms of spaciousness and sound localization.

Currently, interactive sound propagation and rendering in large-scale virtual environments composed of multiple moving sources and objects can present many problems and difficulties with respect to generating an accurate representation. These include large urban environments spanning kilometers and made up of tens or hundreds of buildings with multiple moving vehicles. Other scenarios include large indoor environments such as auditoriums, offices, or factories with volumes up to tens or hundreds of thousands of cubic meters. The model complexity and large dimensions of these spaces result in many acoustic effects including reflections, scattering between the objects, high-order diffraction, late reverberation, echoes, etc.

The most accurate propagation algorithms for modeling various acoustic effects are based on numerically solving the acoustic wave equation. However, the complexity of these methods increases as a linear function of the surface area of the primitives or the volume of the acoustic space, and as at least a cubic function of the maximum simulated frequency. Recently, many wave-based precomputation techniques have been proposed for interactive applications [16, 38, 27, 23, 42]. However, current algorithms are limited to static scenes and the computational and memory requirements increase significantly for large virtual environments.

Some of the widely used techniques for interactive sound propagation are based on geometric acoustics (GA) and use computations based on ray theory. These are used to compute early reflections and diffractions in static scenes [12, 36, 4] or to precompute reverberation effects [39, 4]. A major challenge is to extend these techniques to complex virtual worlds with multiple moving objects or sources. In a large environment, surface scattering and edge diffraction components tend to overshadow specular reflections after a few orders of reflection [20]. Recent advances in ray tracing are used to develop fast sound propagation algorithms for dynamic scenes [21, 26, 34], but these methods still cannot compute compute high-order edge diffraction or diffuse reflections at interactive rates.

Accordingly, there exists a need for systems, methods, and computer readable media for modeling interactive diffuse reflections and higher-order diffraction in virtual environment scenes.

SUMMARY

Methods, systems, and computer readable media for modeling interactive diffuse reflections and higher-order diffraction in virtual environment scenes are disclosed. According to one method, the method includes decomposing a virtual environment scene including at least one object into a plurality of surface regions, wherein each of the surface regions includes a plurality of surface patches. The method further includes organizing sound rays generated by a sound source in the virtual environment scene into a plurality of path tracing groups, wherein each of the path tracing groups comprises a group of the rays that traverses a sequence of surface patches. The method also includes determining, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound intensity by combining a sound intensity computed for a current time with one or more previously computed sound intensities respectively associated with previous times and generating a simulated output sound at a listener position using the determined sound intensities.

A system for modeling interactive diffuse reflections and higher-order diffraction in virtual environment scenes is also disclosed. The system includes a processor and a sound propagation tracing (SPT) module executable by the processor. The SPT module is configured to decompose a virtual environment scene including at least one object into a plurality of surface regions, wherein each of the surface regions includes a plurality of surface patches and organize sound rays generated by a sound source in the virtual environment scene into a plurality of path tracing groups, wherein each of the path tracing groups comprises a group of the rays that traverses a sequence of surface patches. The SPT module is further configured to determine, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound intensity by combining a sound intensity computed for a current time with one or more previously computed sound intensities respectively associated with previous times. The SPT module is also configured to generate a simulated output sound at a listener position using the determined sound intensities.

The subject matter described herein can be implemented in software in combination with hardware and/or firmware. For example, the subject matter described herein can be implemented in software executed by one or more processors. In one exemplary implementation, the subject matter described herein may be implemented using a non-transitory computer readable medium having stored thereon computer executable instructions that when executed by the processor of a computer control the computer to perform steps. Exemplary computer readable media suitable for implementing the subject matter described herein include non-transitory devices, such as disk memory devices, chip memory devices, programmable logic devices, and application specific integrated circuits. In addition, a computer readable medium that implements the subject matter described herein may be located on a single device or computing platform or may be distributed across multiple devices or computing platforms.

As used herein, the terms “node” and “host” refer to a physical computing platform or device including one or more processors and memory.

As used herein, the terms “function” and “module” refer to software in combination with hardware and/or firmware for implementing features described herein.

The subject matter described herein may be implemented in hardware, software, firmware, or any combination thereof. As such, the terms “function” “node” or “module” as used herein refer to hardware, which may also include software and/or firmware components, for implementing the feature being described. In one exemplary implementation, the subject matter described herein may be implemented using a computer readable medium having stored thereon computer executable instructions that when executed by the processor of a computer control the computer to perform steps. Exemplary computer readable media suitable for implementing the subject matter described herein include non-transitory computer-readable media, such as disk memory devices, chip memory devices, programmable logic devices, and application specific integrated circuits. In addition, a computer readable medium that implements the subject matter described herein may be located on a single device or computing platform or may be distributed across multiple devices or computing platforms.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The subject matter described herein will now be explained with reference to the accompanying drawings of which:

FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating an exemplary node for modeling interactive diffuse reflections and higher-order diffraction in virtual environment scenes according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein;

FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating the grouping of coherent sound rays according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein;

FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating an exemplary triangle subdivision according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein;

FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating a top-down view of a diffraction edge visibility graph according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein;

FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating a diffracted path taken by exemplary sound rays according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein; and

FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating various stages of a edge diffraction simplification process according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The subject matter described herein discloses methods, systems, and computer readable media for modeling interactive diffuse reflections and higher-order diffraction in large-scale virtual environment scenes are presented. In particular, the disclosed subject matter is based on ray-based sound propagation and is directly applicable to complex geometric datasets. Early reflections and diffractions are computed using geometric acoustics and late reverberation are computed using statistical techniques to automatically handle large dynamic scenes. In order to achieve interactive performance, new algorithms are utilized. In some embodiments, the subject matter includes an incremental approach that combines radiosity and path tracing techniques to iteratively compute diffuse reflections. Algorithms for wavelength-dependent simplification and visibility graph computation to accelerate higher-order diffraction at runtime are also described. Notably, the overall system can generate plausible sound effects at interactive rates in large, dynamic scenes that have multiple sound sources. As such, the disclosed subject matter improves the functioning and efficiency of the host machine executing these algorithms. Notably, the disclosed subject matter improves the technological field of acoustiscs and sound propagation, especially in the context of virtual scenes and environments.

Reference will now be made in detail to exemplary embodiments of the subject matter described herein, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary node 101 (e.g., a single or multiple processing core computing device) configured for simulating sound propagation according to an embodiment of the subject matter described herein. In some embodiments, node 101 may be a special purpose machine, computing device, and/or platform for performing one more aspects of the present subject matter described herein. In accordance with embodiments of the subject matter described herein, components, modules, and/or portions of node 101 may be implemented or distributed across multiple devices or computing platforms. For example, a cluster of nodes 101 may be used to perform various portions of a sound propagation technique or application.

In some embodiments, node 101 may comprise a computing platform that includes one or more processors 102. In some embodiments, processor 102 may include a physical processor, a central processing unit (CPU), a field-programmable gateway array (FPGA), an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)) and/or any other like processor core. Processor 102 may include or access memory 104, such as for storing executable instructions. Node 101 may also include memory 104. Memory 104 may be any non-transitory computer readable medium and may be operative to communicate with one or more of processors 102. Memory 104 may include a scene decomposition module (SDM) 106, a sound propagation tracing (SPT) module 108, a high-order edge diffraction (HED) module 110, and an edge diffraction simplification (EDS) module 112. In accordance with embodiments of the subject matter described herein, SDM 106 may be configured to cause processor(s) 102 to decompose a virtual environment scene that includes at least one object into a plurality of surface regions. In some embodiments, each of the surface regions includes a plurality of surface patches.

In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may be configured to use one or more techniques (e.g., geometric acoustic techniques) for simulating sound propagation in one or more environments. Geometric acoustic techniques typically solve the sound propagation problem by using assuming sound travels like rays. As such, geometric acoustic techniques may provide a good approximation of sound propagation when the sound wave travels in free space or when the interacting objects are large compared to the wavelength of sound. Therefore, these methods are more suitable for small wavelength (high frequency) sound waves, where the wave effect is not significant. However, for large wavelengths (low frequencies), it remains challenging to accurately model the diffraction and higher order wave effects. Despite these limitations, geometric acoustic techniques are popular due to their computational efficiency, which enable them to handle very large scenes. Exemplary geometric acoustic techniques that may be used by SPT module 108 include methods based on stochastic ray tracing or image sources. In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may be configured to use one or more techniques (e.g., geometric acoustic techniques) for simulating sound propagation in one or more environments.

In accordance with embodiments of the subject matter described herein, SPT module 108 may be configured to organize sound rays (e.g., diffuse sound reflection rays) generated by a sound source in the virtual environment scene into a plurality of path tracing groups. Notably, each of the path tracing groups may include a group of the rays that traverses a sequence of surface patches. SPT module 108 may also be configured to determine, for each of the path tracing groups, a reflected sound intensity. For example, SPT module 108 may determine a sound intensity (e.g., a total reflected sound intensity) by combining and/or summing i) a sound intensity computed for a current time (e.g., a current time frame segment of an acoustic simulation duration) and ii) one or more previously computed sound intensities respectively associated with previously elapsed times (e.g., previously elapsed time frame segments). In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may also be configured to generate a simulated output sound at a listener position using the determined sound intensities. In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may also be configured to compute an output sound field associated with the virtual environment scene by combining all of the determined overall reflected sound intensities.

In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may be configured to preserve the phase information of the sound rays in each of the aforementioned path tracing groups. For example, SPT module 108 may determine, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound delay (e.g., an total sound delay) by combining a sound delay computed for the current time with one or more previously computed reflected sound delays respectively associated with the previously elapsed times. In some embodiments, the one or more previously computed reflected sound intensities and the one or more previously computed reflected sound delays may each comprise a moving average. In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may store the determined sound intensity for each of the path tracing groups within an entry of a hash table cache. In one embodiment, the hash table cache may be stored in memory 104. Notably, each entry of the hash table cache may be repeatedly and/or periodically updated by SPT module 108, e.g., for each time frame segment of a time period associated with an acoustic simulation duration.

In some embodiments, the disclosed subject matter utilizes SPT module 108 configured to employ an iterative approach that uses a combination of path tracing and radiosity techniques to compute diffuse reflections. Spatial and temporal coherence are exploited to reuse some of the rays traced during previous frames, such that an order of magnitude improvement over prior algorithms has been observed. Additional functionalities performed by SPT module 108 are described below in greater detail.

As indicated above, memory 104 may further include HED module 110. In some embodiments, HED module 110 may be configured to compute a preprocessed edge visibility graph (e.g., a diffraction edge visibility graph) for each edge of the at least one object included in the virtual environment scene generated by SDM 106.

Notably, the preprocessed edge visibility graph may be computed irrespective of the location of the sound source and the location of a listening entity. In some embodiments, at runtime, the graph is traversed and the higher-order edge diffraction contributions is computed by HED module 110 based on the uniform theory of diffraction. An exemplary diagram of a diffraction edge visibility graph may be found in FIG. 4 and described in greater detail below.

In some embodiments, memory 104 may also include EDS module 112, which may be configured to generate one or more meshes that correspond to different simulation wavelengths and reduce the number of diffraction edges of the at least one object in the virtual environment scene. In particular, EDS module 112 may be configured to facilitate a wavelength-dependent simplification scheme to significantly reduce the number of diffraction edges in a complex scene. For example, EDS module 112 may be configured to i) compute a surface voxelization for each of the one or more meshes, ii) simplify a shape of each of the one or more meshes by conducting a surface decimation operation to progressively merge vertices in the one or more meshes that share a diffraction edge into a single vertex, and iii) compute, for each of the one or more meshes, an edge visibility graph that includes a set of candidate diffraction edges from the simplified mesh, wherein the candidate diffraction edges significantly deviate from being planar. A diagram of the edge diffraction simplification process may be found in FIG. 6 and described in greater detail below.

In accordance with embodiments of the subject matter described herein, each of modules 106-110 may be configured to work in parallel with a plurality of processors (e.g., processors 102) and/or other nodes. For example, a plurality of processor cores may each be associated with a SPT module 108. Moreover, each processor core may perform processing associated with simulating sound propagation for a particular environment. In another embodiment, some nodes and/or processing cores may be utilized for precomputing (e.g., performing decomposition of a spatial domain or scene and generating transfer functions) and other nodes and/or processing cores may be utilized during run-time, e.g., to execute a sound propagation tracing application that utilizes precomputed values or functions.

In some embodiments, the execution and performance of modules 106-112 may be demonstrated in large urban scenes with tens of buildings, as well as complex indoor scenes corresponding to factories and offices with hundreds of obstacles. The performance scales with the number of cores, and interactive sound propagation and rendering can be performed at 15-50 frames per second using a 4-core CPU. The approach scales logarithmically with the model complexity of the scene and linearly with the number of moving sources and objects. Notably, the disclosed subject matter can generate plausible acoustic effects for large and complex virtual environments at interactive rates.

It will be appreciated that FIG. 1 is for illustrative purposes and that various nodes, their locations, and/or their functions/modules may be changed, altered, added, or removed. For example, some nodes and/or functions/modules may be combined into a single entity. In a second example, a node and/or function/module may be located at or implemented by two or more nodes.

The subject matter described herein may be utilized for performing sound rendering or auditory displays which may augment graphical renderings and provide a user with an enhanced spatial sense of presence. For example, some of the driving applications of sound rendering include acoustic design of architectural models or outdoor scenes, walkthroughs of large computer aided design (CAD) models with sounds of machine parts or moving people, urban scenes with traffic, training systems, computer games, and the like.

The disclosed subject matter also presents novel techniques to compute fast diffuse reflections, higher-order edge diffraction, and automatic simplification of large datasets. Ray tracing has been widely used for offline and interactive sound propagation [19, 40, 6, 34]. In ray tracing, propagation paths are computed by generating rays from each source or receiver position and propagating them through the scene, modeling reflection and diffraction effects (e.g., via the use of one or more of modules 106-112).

The disclosed approach is targeted towards large and spacious models, and assumes homogeneous media and a constant sound speed. Geometric acoustic (GA) techniques are used to accurately compute early reflections (e.g., up to 10 orders) and assume that the surface primitives are large compared to the wavelength. Further, statistical methods are used to compute late reverberation.

The disclosed subject matter also builds on recent advances in interactive ray tracing for visual and sound rendering. Notably, ray tracing may be used to accelerate the image-source method for computing early specular reflections [40] and the uniform theory of diffraction (UTD) may be used to approximate edge diffraction. Frequency-dependent effects are modeled using different absorption and scattering coefficients for discrete frequency bands.

As described herein, a diffuse reflection occurs when sound energy is scattered into non-specular directions. The diffuse sound-energy density w at any point {right arrow over (p)} in space at a time t in is given by equation (1), where L′ is the distance from the surface element dS' to the listener, ç″ is the angle of the sound wave which radiates from the surface element dS′, 60 ({right arrow over (p′)}) is the reflection coefficient as a function of {right arrow over (p)}, B is the irradiation strength, c is the speed of sound, and w_(d)({right arrow over (p)},t) is the direct sound contribution from the sound source [9, 25]:

$\begin{matrix} {{w\left( {\overset{\rightarrow}{p},t} \right)} = {{\frac{1}{\pi \; c}{\int{\int_{S}^{\;}{{\alpha \left( \overset{\rightarrow}{p^{\prime}} \right)}{B\left( {\overset{\rightarrow}{p^{\prime}},{t - \frac{L^{\prime}}{c}}} \right)}\frac{\cos \; ϛ^{''}}{L^{\prime 2}}{S^{\prime}}}}}} + {{w_{d}\left( {\overset{\rightarrow}{p},t} \right)}.}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

In order to handle frequency-dependent absorption, α({right arrow over (p′)}) may be represented as a vector of attenuation values for discrete frequency bands. In sound rendering, the time and phase dependence of sound waves should be modeled. The time dependence is represented by the L′/c term that computes (e.g., using SPT module 108) the delay time due to that propagation along that path. This delay time can be used by SPT module 108 to determine the phase relationship between the original and reflected sound and is responsible for producing acoustic phenomena like echoes.

Since there is no closed-form solution for equation (1) for general scenes, traditional diffuse sound algorithms approximate this integral using numerical techniques. For example, diffuse path tracing [9] may be used to trace many random rays from each sound source and diffusely reflects these rays through the scene to solve the acoustic rendering equation[31, 4]. An intersection test is performed for each ray to calculate its intersection with the listener (e.g., a listener entity, such as a person), who is represented by a sphere the size of a human head. Rays that hit/intersect with a given listener position contribute to the final impulse response for that sound source at that listener's location. The path tracing algorithm can generate accurate results and is frequently used for offline acoustic simulation. Since diffuse path tracing is a Monte-Carlo method, it requires a very high number of ray samples to generate accurate results. Therefore, current techniques for interactive diffuse reflections are limited to very simple models and can only compute 1-3 orders of reflections [21, 33]. Some extensions have been proposed such as “diffuse rain” [45], which can drastically increase the number of ray contributions by generating an additional reflection from each ray hit point to the listener.

In order to accelerate diffuse reflection computation, ideas from radiosity algorithms that are widely used in visual and sound rendering may be used. Radiosity is an alternate method to path tracing that models diffuse reflections by decomposing the scene into small surface patches, computing view factors (or form factors) for each pair of patches, and computing the intensity for each patch as the sum of the contributions from all other patches. Radiosity has also been used to compute sound fields [11]. These approaches discretize the inner integral of equation (1) into the following equation for a single surface element [25]:

$\begin{matrix} {{{I_{i}(t)} = {{\sum\limits_{j:{j \neq i}}{m_{j->i}\alpha_{j}{I_{j}\left( {t - \frac{p_{j->i}}{c}} \right)}\Delta \; S_{j}}} + {I_{0->i}(t)}}},} & (2) \end{matrix}$

where I_(i)(t) is the incident sound intensity at surface patch i at time t, I_(0→i)(t) is the direct contribution from the source at patch i at time t, I_(j) is the contribution from a surface patch j, and m_(j→i) is the view factor between patches j and i. The surface intensities for all patches in the scene are added (e.g., by SPT module 108) to compute the resulting sound field at a listener location p at time t:

$\begin{matrix} {{{w\left( {\overset{\rightarrow}{p},t} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{i}{{I_{i}(t)}{v_{i}\left( {\overset{\rightarrow}{p},t} \right)}}}},} & (3) \end{matrix}$

where ν_(i)({right arrow over (p)},t) is the visibility function for patch i that has range [0,1], which indicates the fraction of that patch visible to point {right arrow over (p)}. This formulation of sound-field computation benefits from less sampling noise than path tracing, but it also requires a high degree of surface subdivision to accurately solve the acoustic rendering equation. In addition, current radiosity-based algorithms are largely limited to static environments, because i) recomputing view factors at runtime is expensive and ii) the memory and time complexity increases with the surface area of the scene. This makes many radiosity-based algorithms unsuitable for large-scale interactive diffuse sound propagation in dynamic scenes.

In some embodiments, SPT module 108 combines path tracing with radiosity-like patch subdivision to reduce sampling noise for interactive diffuse reflections. SPT module 108 may be configured to reuse the rays traced during previous frames for the current frame. SPT module 108 may be also configured based on the assumption that the changes in the locations of sound sources, listeners, and dynamic obstacles are small between successive frames. Therefore, rays that hit the same sequence of surface patches during different frames are grouped together by SPT module 108. The grouped rays' contributions are summed by SPT module 108 to compute a better estimate of the reflected sound intensity I_(t) for that sequence of surface patches, as shown in FIG. 2. Compared with standard path tracing, SPT module 108 may be configured to reduce the number of rays required to compute accurate diffuse sound and improves temporal coherence of the resulting sound field. By projecting/shooting fewer sound rays per frame, computation time is reduced and the interactivity of path tracing for sound propagation is improved.

For example, FIG. 2 depicts an example set of 3rd-order diffuse ray paths. Rays leave a sound source S 202 and traverse a sequence of surface patches 212-216 which are respectively located within triangles 206-210 (e.g., see {T₀(r₀,s₀), T₁(r₁, s₁), T₂ (r₂, s₂)}). The rays then arrive at the listener L 204. As shown in FIG. 2, rays with dashed paths (e.g., ray 220) are from previous frames, while rays with solid paths (e.g., ray 218) are from the current frame. patches, as shown in FIG. 2. Compared with standard path tracing, SPT module 108 may be configured to perform the diffuse reflection algorithm to group these coherent rays together because the rays hit/traverse the same sequence of surface patches. The sound contribution at listener 204 is averaged over the time period, using rays from the previous and current frames.

The use of frame-to-frame coherence along with combining path tracing and radiosity methods has been investigated in visual rendering [18]. This includes caching of diffuse illuminance data (e.g., irradiance caching) to accelerate the computation of global illumination. The notion of reusing ray paths has been used in visual rendering techniques based on frameless rendering and progressive refinement. However, sound rendering differs from visual rendering in several ways. In particular, sound rendering involves computation of phase and time delay information, which results in different formulations. Additionally, radiosity algorithms for visual rendering require a fine subdivision to capture abrupt changes in the view factor such as with hard shadows [18]. On the other hand, the incoherence of diffuse sound rays implies that changes in the incident intensity are usually gradual. This allows for the use of larger surface patches in sound rendering [25].

As part of a preprocessing step conducted by SPT module 108, the triangles are subdivided in the scene into a set of surface patches. This operation can also be performed efficiently at runtime if the scene geometry deforms. For the subdivision, each patch is approximately the same size and meets minimum spatial size criteria. In some embodiments, Barycentric coordinates may be used to partition each triangle in the input scene into a grid of quadrilateral and triangular patches. Patches are arranged as a 2-dimensional grid of entries with indices (r,s), as shown in FIG. 3. We do not store these patches explicitly; instead we use the Barycentric coordinates of each ray-triangle intersection, along with precomputed information about the triangle, to determine which surface patch contains the intersection point at runtime. This formulation requires only a few extra bytes per triangle.

Referring to FIG. 3, in order to precompute the subdivision for a given triangle T 300. SPT module 108 may be configured to select a vertex k of T as the key vertex for that triangle. For example, the vertex is the one that is incident to the longest altitude of T. The length of the altitude from k, d, is used to determine the number of rows in the subdivision n_(r)=[d/l], where l is a parameter used to govern the resolution of the subdivision. In addition, the number of columns for the largest row is n_(s)=[e/l] where e is the length of the edge opposite k. The number of columns n_(s) ^(r) for the rth row is determined by:

$\begin{matrix} {n_{s}^{r} = {\left\lceil {\frac{n_{r} - r}{n_{r}}n_{s}} \right\rceil.}} & (4) \end{matrix}$

In order to determine this subdivision at runtime, SPT module 108 may only store the values of n_(r), n_(s), and the index of key vertex k for each triangle. The choice of subdivision size l determines the size of the patches and accuracy of the approach, as in radiosity-based algorithms. In general, l should be chosen such that the incident sound intensity does not change too much across adjacent patches. For example, referring to FIG. 3, SPT module 108 may be configured to subdivide triangle 300 into an array of indexed patches (r, s) based on the subdivision resolution l. SPT module 108 may compute the ray intersection point {right arrow over (p)} with Barycentric coordinates (λ_(k), λ_(a), 1−λ_(k)−λ_(α)), (e.g. (r, s)=(1,3)).

In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may be configured to maintain a separate hash-table cache (not shown) of diffuse reflectance data for each sound source. This cache is used to store the combined contributions of many sound rays from previous frames that are grouped based on the surface subdivision. Each cache entry corresponds to a unique series of surface patches {T₀(r₀, s₀), . . . , T_(n)(r_(n), s_(n))}, where each element of the series indicates one of the triangles T_(i) and a surface patch (r_(i), s_(i)) on T_(i). This entry represents the n+1 diffuse reflections that have occurred for rays emitted along the path to the listener.

Each cache entry may also store the set of values {η, μ, {circumflex over (α)}, {circumflex over (δ)}}. For example, η is the number of rays following this entry's path that have hit the listener, μ is the total number of rays emitted from the source for all frames (while this entry was in the cache), {circumflex over (α)}=Σα represents the sum of the total frequency-dependent attenuation, e.g., αε[0,1] (due to the n+1 diffuse reflections for all rays that have traveled the path for this entry), and {circumflex over (δ)}=Σδ represents the sum of the path lengths δ for all rays that have hit and/or traversed this sequence of surface patches while the entry was in the cache. From these values, the average incident sound source intensity I_(i) for this patch sequence i received at the listener as a fraction of the total emitted energy can be computed by SPT module 108 as follows:

$\begin{matrix} {I_{i} = {\frac{\eta}{\mu}{\frac{\alpha}{\eta}.}}} & (5) \end{matrix}$

The value of η/μ estimates the average of the combined m_(j→i), I_(j), and I_(0→i)(t) terms from equation (2). Those terms together may allow SPT module 108 to determine the frequency-independent fraction of source energy reflected from a surface patch, which is the same value estimated by η/μ. Similarly, α/η approximates the average α_(j) term from Equation (2). To compute the average path length δ for a cache entry, SPT module 108 may use:

$\begin{matrix} {\overset{\_}{\delta} = {\frac{\hat{\delta}}{\eta}.}} & (6) \end{matrix}$

This average path length is divided by the speed of sound c in the propagation medium to determine the average delay time for this path.

In some embodiments, at the beginning of each simulation step, SPT module 108 may be configured to trace random rays from each sound source position and diffusely reflect those rays through the scene to an arbitrary maximum depth (e.g., 10), as in traditional path tracing. For each ray-triangle intersection, SPT module 108 may be configured to first find the surface patch, T(r,s), for the intersection point {right arrow over (p)} on triangle T. SPT module 108 may then compute the Barycentric coordinates (λ₀,λ₁,λ₂) of {right arrow over (p)} with respect to triangle T. Next, SPT module 108 may be configured to select two of the three components of the Barycentric coordinates (λ_(k),λ_(α)) from the set (λ₀,λ₁,λ₂) in order to define the subdivision axes. As used herein, λ_(k) is the component corresponding to the key vertex k, and λ_(α) is the component for the vertex a that is to the left of k on triangle T. Given λ_(k) and λ_(α), SPT module 108 can then compute the row and column indices (r, s) for the surface patch containing {right arrow over (p)}, as shown in FIG. 3: r=└λ_(k)·n_(r)┘, s=└λ_(α)·n_(s) ^(r)┘. This patch T(r, s) is added to the patch sequence for the ray that is currently being propagated.

When the ray is reflected, the outgoing ray is tested to see if the ray intersects the listener's detection sphere. If so, the sequence of previous surface patches (e.g., {T₀(r₀,s₀), . . . , T_(n)(r_(n),s_(n))}), where reflections occurred along this path are used to access the diffuse cache. If SPT module 108 determines that there was an existing cache entry for that specific patch sequence, the entry is updated with the contribution for that ray:

η_(new)=η+1;{circumflex over (α)}_(new)={circumflex over (α)}+α_(new);{circumflex over (δ)}_(new)={circumflex over (δ)}+δ_(new).  (7)

If there is no entry corresponding to this sequence of patches, a new entry is inserted by SPT module 108 into the cache and the corresponding parameters are set as η=1, μ=0, α=α_(new), {circumflex over (δ)}=δ_(new).

After all the rays have been traced by SPT module 108 from the source and the cache entries updated for rays that hit/arrive at the listener, the cache contains entries that correspond to the accumulated contribution of groups of rays that have traveled along similar paths to the listener during the current frame or previous frames. Next, SPT module 108 computes the final impulse response for this source-listener combination from the cache by iterating through all entries and generating a delayed impulse for each entry. For each entry, the value of μ is increased by the total number of rays emitted from the source during this frame. In some embodiments, SPT module 108 can use equation (5) to compute the incident intensity I_(i) for this cache entry. If SPT module 108 determines that this intensity value is less than some threshold κ, then very few rays have hit/traversed the sequence of surface patches corresponding to the cache entry in recent frames. In this scenario, the cache entry is removed by SPT module 108 because the cache entry does not significantly contribute to the final impulse response at the listener's location. In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may use a cutoff threshold of κ=−60 dB or 1/1000th of the original source's energy. Further, this threshold may be used in measuring the reverberation time, RT60, of an acoustical space [10]. Cache entries that exceed κ in energy (as determined by SPT module 108) contribute to the output impulse response. The delay time for this entry's contribution is computed by SPT module 108 using the average path length from equation (6) and the speed of sound. Finally, this contribution is added by SPT module 108 to the output sound field at the listener's location using equation (3), where the value of the visibility function ν_(i) is always 1 as all of the sound source contributions for the path are known to intersect the listener.

In order to avoid storing reflectance data that is no longer accurate for the current scene configuration, SPT module 108 may be configured to bind the maximum age in seconds of the data stored in the cache. Any cache entry that is older than some threshold time τ in seconds is removed by SPT module 108. This threshold determines the maximum temporal span of the moving average from equations (5) and (6) and the maximum response time for changes in the scene configuration. A larger value for τ increases the accuracy for the estimate of I_(i) by using a bigger averaging window and more rays. However, this may not be consistent with the current scene configuration if sources, listeners, or objects in the scene change position abruptly. A small value for τ requires more rays to be traced per frame to maintain accurate output, since the temporal averaging for values stored in the cache will have less effect.

This diffuse path caching approach conducted by SPT module 108 can incrementally compute a moving average of the incident intensity I_(i)(t) from equation (2) for each sequence of surface patch reflections that arrive at the listener. SPT module 108 may be configured to sample these values using traditional path tracing, but use a radiosity-like subdivision to take advantage of the coherence of rays from previous frames. SPT module 108 may also be configured to group the rays based on the sequence of reflections that have occurred. By grouping rays over many frames and reusing those results, SPT module 108 may avoid undersampling artifacts, yet may require far fewer rays emitted from the sound sources, thereby reducing the time needed to compute realistic diffuse reflections. Like radiosity-based algorithms, the algorithm facilitated by SPT module 108 converges to traditional diffuse path tracing with a suitably small subdivision resolution l. However, if l is too small, the algorithm may require a greater number of rays to be traced and a larger diffuse path cache. In this scenario, fewer rays are grouped together and the effect of path reuse is reduced, resulting in a smaller benefit over traditional diffuse path tracing.

In order to model edge diffraction, SPT module 108 may be configured to use an approximation based on the uniform theory of diffraction (UTD), which has been used in interactive geometric sound propagation systems [36, 33, 34, 29]. However, these algorithms are limited to either static scenes or can only compute first order edge diffraction in dynamic scenes. The problem of finding high-order diffraction paths efficiently is difficult due to the number of edge pairs that need to be considered. A naive approach has running time that can be exponential in the maximum diffraction order. This is due to the fact that at each level of recursive diffraction, all other diffraction edges in the scene must be considered. Prior methods have used beam tracing [36] or frustum tracing [33] to compute secondary diffraction edge visibility at runtime. However, this becomes expensive for more than 1st order diffraction in complex scenes, as a large number of complex beam or frustum intersection tests are required.

As indicated above, the disclosed subject matter may utilize a HED module 110 that can be configured to execute a novel algorithm for computing high-order diffraction paths efficiently using a preprocessed edge visibility graph. This graph structure minimizes the number of diffraction edges that need to be considered at runtime and avoids any runtime edge-edge visibility queries. Most importantly, the approach is valid for any source or listener positions. More specifically, the visibility graph can be computed by HED module 110 once, between all edges of static objects, and then used for all scene configurations.

In some embodiments, HED module 110 may be configured to compute one visibility graph for all edges of all static objects in the scene. Moreover, a separate visibility graph can be computed by HED module 110 for the edges of each dynamic object. In some embodiments, HED module 110 does not, however, take into account the relative visibility of edges of two different dynamic objects or of one static and one dynamic object.

Furthermore, HED module 110 may be configured to assume that dynamic objects undergo rigid transformations, and that a precomputed visibility graph for that object's static mesh will remain valid. The formulation supported by HED module 110 allows a simple graph search to be performed at runtime to find high-order diffraction paths that occur within a single graph. Further, HED module 110 may be configured to not consider the visibility between edges belonging to different visibility graphs.

During the preprocessing step, each edge in a mesh is classified by HED module 110 as a diffracting edge or non-diffracting edge based on the angle between the edges' neighboring triangles. HED module 110 may be configured to compute a graph data structure containing information about which edges are visible to each of the diffraction edges using region-based visibility algorithms [3]. For each diffraction edge in the mesh, HED module 110 may be configured to check all other diffraction edges to see whether those edges satisfy the orientation criteria for mutually diffracting edges, as shown in FIG. 4. If at least some part of either edge in a pair is behind the plane of the neighboring triangles for the other edge, there is the possibility that diffraction can occur over that edge pair. This test is used to cull edge pairs that cannot be combined as diffraction edges. If two edges can form a diffraction path and are visible to each other, a link is added to the graph structure between these edges. FIG. 4 shows the visible edges for a single edge in an example visibility graph. For example, FIG. 4 depicts a top-down view of a portion of a diffraction edge visibility graph 400 for a small village scene, shown in FIG. 4 as edge E. Edges e_(1 . . . 10) are visible to edge E and intersect the gray-shaded areas (areas 401 and 403) that represent the shadow regions for E. In some embodiments, HED module 110 may be configure to only consider diffraction effects in shadow regions 401 and 403. Regions 401 and 403 are defined as the set of points where only one of the planes that contain the neighboring triangles for E has a normal pointing towards a given point. Edge E must also intersect shadow regions 401 and 403 for each edge e_(1 . . . 10) for those edge pairs to be stored in the visibility graph 400.

At runtime, HED module 110 uses the primary rays traced in the diffuse step described above to determine a set of triangles visible to each source. For each visible triangle, HED module 110 may check to see if the triangle has any diffraction edges. If so, HED module 110 can search the corresponding visibility graph, moving towards the listener, with that edge as the starting point. The recursive graph search proceeds in a depth-first manner until a maximum depth is reached, at which point the search backtracks and checks other sequences of edges. At each step in the graph search conducted by HED module 110, all diffraction edges that were preprocessed as visible from the current diffraction edge are recursively checked to determine if there is a path to the listener. For each edge, HED module 110 may first compute the shortest path between the source and the listener over that edge, then determine the point of closest approach on the edge to the line connecting the source and listener [8]. This set of closest points represents the source image positions on each edge in a series of diffractions. A neighboring edge in the graph is checked by HED module 110 for higher-order diffraction paths if the point of closest approach on the edge lies on the interval of that edge, and if that point is contained within the previous edge's diffraction shadow region, as shown in FIG. 5. In some embodiments, HED module 110 may be configured to consider diffraction that only occurs in the shadow region for an edge [36]. A point is contained in the shadow region for an edge if it is behind the plane formed by the previous image source position and the edge and is in front of the triangle that defines the shadow region boundary. In some embodiments, these simple, fast tests enable HED module 110 to avoid path validation checks for a large fraction of the potential diffraction paths.

For example, FIG. 5 depicts a second-order diffraction path. Rays may originate from a source 502 and traverse via source image positions i₁ and i₂ to a listening entity 504 (e.g., listener L). Notably, source image positions i₁ and i₂ are only valid if they lie behind the plane formed by the last image position and the current edge. The diffracted sound takes the shortest path over the edges 506 and 508 and is valid only if the image positions lie on the edge(s) and if the path is not obstructed.

Finally, if the listener is contained within the next diffraction shadow region, HED module 110 may validate the diffraction path to that listener by tracing rays between the previously computed sequence of image positions on the edges. If the ray traced between two consecutive image source positions does not hit an obstacle, that segment of the path is determined to be valid by HED module 110. If the entire path from the source to listener over the sequence of edges is found to be unobstructed, then HED module 110 may compute a frequency-dependent attenuation, using the UTD model, for that path to account for diffraction. Since the UTD attenuation from a single edge diffraction only depends on the local edge geometry and the previous and next source image positions, the attenuation can be computed by HED module 110 separately for each edge e_(j) along a diffraction path. In some embodiments, the attenuation coefficients are multiplied by HED module 110 for all edges in a path produces the total attenuation due from the high-order diffraction path, similar to the formulation used in [36]. Each valid path is then added by HED module 110 to the final output impulse response for the sound source.

Many large databases are designed for visual rendering and include highly tessellated models with detailed features. Such models may have higher complexity than that is needed for sound propagation. Geometric acoustics approaches are valid for surfaces that are large compared to the wavelength. There has been some work on simplifying geometric models or use of level-of-detail techniques for acoustic simulation [31, 26, 38]. However, a key challenge in the field is to automatically generate a simplification that preserves the basic acoustic principles, including reflections, scattering and diffraction. For example, some techniques based on geometric reduction applied to room models can change the reverberation time of the simplified model [31]. And, in many cases, geometric simplification is performed by hand or using authoring tools, but it is hard to extend these approaches to complex models.

In some embodiments, HED module 110 may be configured to compute early reflections and diffractions is based on ray tracing and use bounding volume hierarchies to accelerate ray intersection tests. In general, the cost of updating the hierarchy for dynamic scenes by refitting is a linear function of the model complexity of dynamic objects. The cost of intersection computation is almost a logarithmic function of the number of polygons. Because of logarithmic complexity, the relative benefit of model simplification on ray-tracing intersection computation is not high. Consequently, m HED module 110 may be configured to use the original geometric representation for computing specular and diffuse reflections.

One aspect of the diffraction algorithm supported by HED module 110 is the identification of important diffraction edges in the scene. The complexity of visibility-graph computation and runtime traversal can increase significantly with the number of edges in the model. Some prior approaches for UTD-based diffraction computation are either limited to coarse models [36] or consider all edges that have neighboring non-planar triangles [33]. The latter approach can result in large number of small diffraction edges in complex scenes with detailed geometric representations. In practice, the UTD edge diffraction algorithm tends to be more accurate for longer edges since the presence of a high number of small edges can result in inaccurate results.

In some embodiments, EDS module 112 conducts a simplification technique that generates a reduced set of diffraction edges for interactive acoustic simulation. To be specific, EDS module 112 may generate meshes corresponding to different simulation wavelengths. Since this simplified mesh is used only for UTD-based edge diffraction computation, the simplification does not affect the the accuracy of reflections. FIG. 6 shows an overview of the mesh processing pipeline that EDS module 112 utilizes. In some embodiments, this pipeline executed by EDS module 112 extends the pipeline described in [47] with additional edge merging and visibility graph steps. Notably, FIG. 6 illustrates a number of stages of the simplification algorithm that may be performed by EDS module 112. In particular, stage 601 illustrates the input of a mesh, stage 602 illustrates the surface-voxelization of the input mesh, stage 603 illustrates isosurface extractions (e.g., “marching cubes”), and stage 604 illustrates both surface decimation based on edge-collapses and the merging of collinear diffraction edges. Lastly, stage 605 illustrates the building of an edge visibility graph (e.g., visibility graph computation).

In some embodiments, EDS module 112 may perform a preprocessing step that includes the computing of a hierarchical surface voxelization of each object. In some embodiments, the value of a voxelis determined based on the distance to the closest triangle [15]. This allows EDS module 112 to handle non-closed geometric primitives better than traditional voxelization algorithms, which are based on scan-conversion. The voxelization results in a tree of voxels, where the voxel resolution doubles at each successive tree depth. This tree can be used by EDS module 112 to generate surface approximations corresponding to different wavelengths. For example, EDS module 112 may be configured to choose the tree depth where the voxel resolution is at least half the required wavelength. This resolution is chosen by EDS module 112 based on the spatial Nyquist distance h=c/f_(max), where f_(max) is the highest simulated frequency [42]. The discretization imposed by the voxelization removes details that are smaller than the voxel resolution.

In some embodiments, EDS module 112 may be configured to triangulate a level in the voxel tree by applying the marching cubes algorithm [22]. This generates a triangular mesh corresponding to an isosurface in the voxel grid. However, this mesh may not be suitable for computing a reduced set of diffraction edges. For instance, the voxelization and triangulation computation approximate large triangles in the original model with many smaller ones that lie in the same plane. In order to address this issue, EDS module 112 may first compute the adjacency information for the mesh by merging coincident vertices. Next, EDS module 112 may apply the edge-collapse algorithm based on the quadric error metric [13] until an error threshold is exceeded. These decimation operations progressively merge vertices that share an edge into a single vertex by minimizing the resulting error in the mesh's shape. This results in a highly simplified mesh that preserves the largest features from the original model, while removing small details that would produce extraneous diffraction edges. Finally, EDS module 112 may determine a set of candidate diffraction edges using a heuristic that chooses edges with a significant deviation from being planar. Given this simplified model, EDS module 112 can compute the visibility graph and use that for higher order edge diffraction computation.

In order to process very large models efficiently, EDS module 112 may be configured to split the input scene into regions of a maximum size. In some embodiments, these regions are voxelized, triangulated, and simplified in parallel. The simplified regions are combined to form the output simplified mesh. An edge collapse algorithm executed by EDS module 112 preserves the boundaries of each region in order to avoid seams between them. Since EDS module 112 may be configured to independently process many smaller regions rather than an entire large mesh at once, the memory footprint of the algorithm is only a few hundred MBs, whereas naively processing an entire large scene could take 10's of GB of RAM.

The disclosed subject matter may be implemented in a various ways or by various means. For example, in some embodiments, SPT module 108 may trace rays in a random uniform distribution from each source location to compute diffuse sound. These rays are propagated through the scene via diffuse reflections up to an arbitrary maximum reflection depth (e.g., 10). The number of rays needed to achieve accurate sound is scene-dependent. In many instances, SPT module 108 traced 1000 rays from each source except where noted. In some embodiments, SPT module 108 can use far fewer rays for diffuse sound path tracing than for visual rendering because the listener detection sphere is usually much larger than a camera pixel and because human hearing is more tolerant of error than visual perception. In addition, the diffuse cache accumulates the results of rays traced on previous frames, thus requiring less rays. Specular reflections are computed separately from diffuse reflections by tracing uniform random rays from the listener's position to sample the set of possible specular paths. In some embodiments, these rays can be specularly reflect to a chosen maximum depth and SPT module 108 may be configured to use this information to build a set of candidate paths with each path represented as a series of triangle reflectors. Finally, SPT module 108 may check each candidate path to determine if there is a valid specular reflection along the path from the listener to each source in the scene using the image-source method. If so, an output specular path is produced by SPT module 108. This is similar to [21, 29]. In some embodiments, SPT module 108 accelerate ray tracing using bounding volume hierarchies that can be efficiently updated for moving or deforming objects. SPT module 108 may also use 4-band frequency-dependent reflection attenuation coefficients α that are applied for each material type with the frequency bands: 0-250 Hz, 250-1000 Hz, 1000-4000 Hz, and 4000-22100 Hz. Each surface material is also assigned a scattering coefficient that determines the fraction of reflected sound that is scattered.

In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may be configured to leverage the single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) and multi-threading capabilities of current CPUs to accelerate the computation. For example, SPT module 108 may be configured to run the different components of the sound propagation system separately and in parallel. The diffuse and edge-diffraction components for every sound source are each computed by HED module 110 on separate threads that run concurrently. The specular contributions are computed by SPT module 108 by tracing rays from the listener's position. Once all the threads finish the current frame, the resulting propagation paths for each thread are gathered and sent to the audio rendering subsystem. The disclosed example implementation makes use of all available CPU hardware threads. In some embodiments, the modules responsible for supporting these sound propagation algorithms are implemented in C++ and make use of SIMD instructions and fast ray tracing.

The diffuse system supports scenes with moving sound sources, listeners, and objects. The diffuse triangle subdivision described above is valid for objects undergoing rigid motion and can be updated in real time if an object deforms or undergoes topological changes. In some embodiments, the subdivision can be recomputed for a large city benchmark (254,903 triangles) in 11.5 milliseconds (ms) using a single CPU core. The bounding volume hierarchy used for ray tracing can also be updated in less than 1 ms when objects in a scene undergo rigid motion, and allows fast refitting if objects deform. Since the diffuse technique uses a persistent cache to conduct time-averaging of diffuse paths, it may also be necessary to clear the cache if there is a large sudden change in the scene. The diffraction algorithm can also handle moving sources, listeners, and objects, but with only a limited level of dynamism. The high-order diffraction assumes that the visibility relationship between the edges doesn't change. As a result, it does not model diffraction effects between the edges of two different dynamic objects or between one dynamic and one static object. However, the approach can model high-order diffraction that occurs between edges of the same dynamic object undergoing affine transformations.

In order to render the audio output of the sound propagation algorithms, SPT module 108 may be configured to use a linearly interpolating delay line for each propagation path [37]. The smoothness of the interpolation is determined by a parameter that specifies the time for a change in propagation path amplitude or delay. Longer interpolation time produces smoother audio, especially at the boundary between the lit and diffraction shadow region, but results in a higher latency for these transitions. For example, the source audio is split at runtime into four (4) frequency bands that correspond to the bands used for material properties with Linkwitz-Riley 4th-order crossover filters. This allows SPT module 108 to utilize a renderer to efficiently model frequency-dependent effects by applying different gains to each band. Audio for all frequency bands is rendered separately based on the frequency-dependent attenuation coefficients for the path, then mixed (added) together at the output to produce the final audio. In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may perform vector-based amplitude panning to spatialize the audio for each propagation path separately using the path's direction from the listener. As the audio for each path is rendered, it is accumulated in a common output audio buffer. Further, SPT module 108 may use a statistical model for late-reverberation based on the Eyring reverb time equation [10] that dynamically estimates the mean free path and visible surface area in the scene using diffuse sound rays. The mean free path is used by SPT module 108 to approximate the effective scene volume with the well-known equation V= lS/4, relating the volume (V), mean free path ( l), and surface area (S) of the environment: The RT₆₀ from this model is used as input for a Schroeder-type reverberator [48] that is mixed with the early propagation paths computed by a geometric acoustics algorithm supported by SPT module 108. A delay based on the shortest diffuse path delay time is applied to the reverberator to align it with the early diffuse reflections. In some embodiments, all audio rendering is performed at 44.1 kHz and SPT module 108 uses SIMD instructions to vectorize the rendering of frequency bands.

In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may be configured to analyze have the runtime performance as well as accuracy of our diffuse reflection computation algorithms. For example, a value of l=0.5 m for simulations may be selected. In some embodiments, SPT module 108 may support an incremental algorithm that is able to simulate over 10 orders of reflection in the scenes at around 50-60 Hz for a single sound source. While 1000 rays were used with one approach, its accuracy is compared with two versions of path tracing: 1000 rays and 10000 rays, and perform 10 orders of reflection. The accuracy of the algorithm is comparable to that of path tracing with 10000 rays, with an average error of of 2.27 dB. On the other hand, path tracing with only 1000 rays, produces noisier results and average error of 6.69 dB. The temporal averaging of the method dramatically improves the results for a given number of emitted rays (i.e. 1000 rays). The approach is effective at improving the accuracy of low-intensity sound in the left and right portions of the graph.

In order to evaluate the performance of high order edge diffraction algorithm, HED module 110 may be configured to measure how the approach scales with the maximum diffraction order. In the worst case, the complexity of GA-based diffraction algorithms is of the form O(n^(d)) where n is the number of neighbors for each edge in the visibility graph and d is the maximum diffraction order. HED module 110 may be configured to report both the average time to compute diffraction for the benchmark scenes, and the maximum time spent for any instance of the source and location. This is due to the fact that the performance of our diffraction varies considerably with the source and listener positions. For example, for certain positions, the time spent in searching the visibility graph can be high, as some of the vertices in the visibility graph may have a high number of neighbors. In practice, the approach enables computation of 5th or 6th order diffraction at real-time rates in benchmarks. Since precomputed visibility information is used, no runtime edge-edge visibility checks are performed. This dramatically reduces the number of edge pairs that need to be considered for high-order diffraction paths.

The simplification algorithm executed bye EDS module 112 can generate different approximations as a function of the wavelength. In one implementation, the simplifications are generated based on wavelength λ=0.25 m, corresponding to a frequency of 1.3 kHz, and a voxel size of 0.125 m. It was determined that the simplification algorithm significantly reduces the number of diffraction edges for the benchmark scenes. Notably, the number of edges can be reduced to around 30-90% of the original number of diffraction edges for the unsimplified model.

For small scenes, the simplification algorithm takes only a few seconds while large scenes that are as large as 50 million cublic meters (m³) can be simplified in minutes. In general, the simplification time increases with the scene volume because more voxels are needed to meet the wavelength spatial resolution. The voxelization approach is O(nlogn) with respect to the number of triangles in original mesh. Simplified models are used for visibility graph computation. Since the number of edges are reduced, it significantly speeds up visibility graph computation and also reduces the size of visibility graph.

The prior geometric techniques for diffuse reflections are based on path tracing [21, 1,33]. The main benefit of the disclosed method arises from the fact that almost one order of magnitude fewer rays can be shot as compared to path tracing to achieve similar accuracy. This is due to the fact that temporal averaging may be performed, which can significantly improve the accuracy. The RESound system [33] takes about 250-500 ms to compute up to 3 orders of diffuse reflections (with 200K rays) on models with 60-280K triangles using seven threads on a multi-core CPU. Conversely, the disclosed algorithm takes less than 15 ms per source to compute up to 10 orders of diffuse reflections. Other recent work is based on the acoustic rendering equation [30, 4] and is used to precompute higher order reflections and diffraction for mostly static scenes. These approaches are complimentary to the formulation of the disclosed subject matter. For example, the diffuse algorithm can be used to accelerate early reflection computation in [4].

In terms of edge diffraction, prior techniques are limited to coarse static models [36] or first order edge diffraction in dynamic scenes [34, 29]. These approaches make no assumptions on edge visibility at runtime and therefore must compute a visible set of high-order diffraction edges for each edge on every frame. Generally this operation is performed by intersecting shadow-region frusta with the scene or by sampling edge visibility by tracing rays in the shadow region. This must be performed recursively for each edge considered for diffraction and becomes non-interactive (i.e., more than 500-1000 ms) at more than one or two orders of diffraction. Furthermore, wavelength-based simplification is used, which makes it possible to perform high-order edge diffraction in complex scenes.

The UTD-based diffraction technique was compared with the offline BTM diffraction model [32] on a simple scene with a rectangular obstacle (e.g., 12 edges) and a single sound source. The BTM model integrates the diffraction that occurs over the entire extent of each edge, whereas UTD only considers diffraction over a single point on an edge. It was observed that the formulation based on UTD diffraction model overestimates the amount of high-frequency attenuation versus BTM. The error in the frequency response was 3.10 dB for 1st-order diffraction and 3.61 dB for 2nd-order diffraction.

In conclusion, different algorithms have presented to enable interactive geometric sound propagation in complex scenes. The main contributions include a novel algorithm for diffuse reflections and higher order diffraction. Further, an approach to simplify the scene for edge diffraction and thereby making it possible to automatically handle large geometric databases for sound propagation is disclosed. Notably, more than an order-of-magnitude performance improvement over prior methods has been observed and the accuracy is comparable to those methods. Thus, the disclosed subject matter is a unique approach that can interactively compute higher-order diffraction and diffuse reflections in complex environments to generate plausible sound effects.

It will be understood that various details of the subject matter described herein may be changed without departing from the scope of the subject matter described herein. Furthermore, the foregoing description is for the purpose of illustration only, and not for the purpose of limitation, as the subject matter described herein is defined by the claims as set forth hereinafter.

The disclosure of each of the following references is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

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What is claimed is:
 1. A method for simulating sound propagation, the method comprising: decomposing a virtual environment scene including at least one object into a plurality of surface regions, wherein each of the surface regions includes a plurality of surface patches; organizing sound rays generated by a sound source in the virtual environment scene into a plurality of path tracing groups, wherein each of the path tracing groups comprises a group of the rays that traverses a sequence of surface patches; determining, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound intensity by combining a sound intensity computed for a current time with one or more previously computed sound intensities respectively associated with previous times; and generating a simulated output sound at a listener position using the determined sound intensities.
 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising determining, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound delay by combining a sound delay computed for the current time with one or more previously computed sound delays respectively associated with the previous times.
 3. The method of claim 2 wherein the combination of the one or more previously computed sound intensities and the one or more previously computed sound delays each comprise a moving average.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the determined sound intensity for each of the path tracing groups is respectively stored as an entry of a hash table cache.
 5. The method of claim 4 wherein each entry of the hash table cache is periodically updated.
 6. The method of claim 1 comprising computing a preprocessed edge visibility graph for each edge of the at least one object included in the virtual environment scene.
 7. The method of claim 6 wherein the preprocessed edge visibility graph is computed irrespective of the location of the sound source and the location of a listening entity.
 8. The method of claim 1 comprising generating one or more meshes that correspond to different simulation wavelengths and reduce the number of diffraction edges of the at least object in the virtual environment scene.
 9. The method of claim 8 comprising: computing a surface voxelization for each of the one or more meshes; simplifying a shape of each of the one or more meshes by conducting a surface decimation operation to progressively merge vertices in the one or more meshes that share a diffraction edge into a single vertex; and computing, for each of the one or more meshes, an edge visibility graph that includes a set of candidate diffraction edges from the simplified mesh, wherein the candidate diffraction edges significantly deviate from being planar.
 10. A system for simulating sound propagation using wave-ray coupling, the system comprising: a processor; a scene decomposition module (SDM) executable by the processor, the SDM is configured to decompose a virtual environment scene including at least one object into a plurality of surface regions, wherein each of the surface regions includes a plurality of surface patches; and a sound propagation tracing (SPT) module executable by the processor, the SPT module is configured to: organize sound rays generated by a sound source in the virtual environment scene into a plurality of path tracing groups, wherein each of the path tracing groups comprises a group of the rays that traverses a sequence of surface patches; determine, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound intensity by combining a sound intensity computed for a current time with one or more previously computed sound intensities respectively associated with previous times; and generate a simulated output sound at a listener position using the determined sound intensities.
 11. The system of claim 10 wherein the SPT module is further configured to determine, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound delay by combining a sound delay computed for the current time with one or more previously computed sound delays respectively associated with previous times.
 12. The system of claim 11 wherein the one or more previously computed sound intensities and the one or more previously computed sound delays each comprise a moving average.
 13. The system of claim 10 wherein the sound intensity for each of the path tracing groups is respectively stored as an entry of a hash table cache.
 14. The system of claim 13 wherein each entry of the hash table cache is periodically updated by the SPT module.
 15. The system of claim 10 comprising a high-order edge diffraction (HED) module configured to compute a preprocessed edge visibility graph for each edge of the at least one object included in the virtual environment scene.
 16. The system of claim 15 wherein the visibility graph is computed irrespective of the location of the sound source and the location of a listening entity.
 17. The system of claim 10 comprising an edge diffraction simplification (EDS) module configured to generate one or more meshes that correspond to different simulation wavelengths and reduce the number of diffraction edges of the at least object in the virtual environment scene.
 18. The system of claim 17 wherein the EDS module is further configured to: compute a surface voxelization for each of the one or more meshes; simplify a shape of each of the one or more meshes by conducting a surface decimation operation to progressively merge vertices in the one or more meshes that share a diffraction edge into a single vertex; and compute, for each of the one or more meshes, an edge visibility graph that includes a set of candidate diffraction edges from the simplified mesh, wherein the candidate diffraction edges significantly deviate from being planar.
 19. A non-transitory computer readable medium having stored thereon executable instructions that when executed by a processor of a computer control the computer to perform steps comprising: decomposing a virtual environment scene including at least one object into a plurality of surface regions, wherein each of the surface regions includes a plurality of surface patches; organizing sound rays generated by a sound source in the virtual environment scene into a plurality of path tracing groups, wherein each of the path tracing groups comprises a group of the rays that traverses a sequence of surface patches; determining, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound intensity by combining a sound intensity computed for a current time with one or more previously computed sound intensities respectively associated with previous times; and generating a simulated output sound at a listener position using the determined sound intensities.
 20. The non-transitory computer readable medium of claim 19 further comprising determining, for each of the path tracing groups, a sound delay by combining a sound delay computed for the current time with one or more previously computed sound delays respectively associated with the previous times.
 21. The non-transitory computer readable medium of claim 20 wherein the combination of the one or more previously computed sound intensities and the one or more previously computed sound delays each comprise a moving average.
 22. The non-transitory computer readable medium of claim 19 wherein the determined sound intensity for each of the path tracing groups is respectively stored as an entry of a hash table cache.
 23. The non-transitory computer readable medium of claim 22 wherein each entry of the hash table cache is periodically updated.
 24. The non-transitory computer readable medium of claim 19 comprising computing a preprocessed edge visibility graph for each edge of the at least one object included in the virtual environment scene.
 25. The non-transitory computer readable medium of claim 24 wherein the preprocessed edge visibility graph is computed irrespective of the location of the sound source and the location of a listening entity.
 26. The non-transitory computer readable medium of claim 19 comprising generating one or more meshes that correspond to different simulation wavelengths and reduce the number of diffraction edges of the at least object in the virtual environment scene.
 27. The non-transitory computer readable medium of claim 26 comprising: computing a surface voxelization for each of the one or more meshes; simplifying a shape of each of the one or more meshes by conducting a surface decimation operation to progressively merge vertices in the one or more meshes that share a diffraction edge into a single vertex; and computing, for each of the one or more meshes, an edge visibility graph that includes a set of candidate diffraction edges from the simplified mesh, wherein the candidate diffraction edges significantly deviate from being planar. 